Since the middle of last century, mass of immigrants have been attracted to cities in developing countries by the explosive working opportunities created under the neoliberal structural adjustment policies in these countries. The informal sector of economy consisted of these new urban immigrants becomes more and more important in countries’ development. However, the surge of immigration’s settlements also brings huge pressure to the urban land, especially when these settlements are mostly illegal or “extra-legal”, “built without conformance to zoning or service regulations and enabled by bribes, populist governments, or property speculators who hope for eventual regularization and compensation for their investment.”[3] This situation brings problems both to city planning and the migrants themselves.

Mike Davis takes a more broad view looking at current slum conditions and the informal sector of economy supporting behind it in his book Planet of Slums. In one of the chapters “ a surplus humanity”, Davis mentioned the competition between informal sector and some small-scale formal enterprises, which reveals some part of hard life for informal employees, especially with the pressure of exorbitant rent fees when more urban land becomes private. The increasing strain in work and the hazard in illegal slum settlement form a potential political problem for the governors. A narrative non-fiction by Katherine Boo, Behind the Beautiful, rises up this question during the narration of author’s four-year living experience in a slum called Annawadi in India.

（http://www.amazon.com/Behind-Beautiful-Forevers-Mumbai-Undercity/dp/1400067553 )

Compared to Davis, Robert Neuwirth provides us with more optimistic vision through his experience in four different slums. He raises up a new point that “people are adapting: they are demonstrating survival strategies that make life not only bearable but in some places and in some respects quite manageable.” [3] While, the adaption not only occurs in migrants’ life, but also in original urban inhabitants’. They already get used to a certain life style with the informal economy.

As John Beardsley mentioned in his essay “ A Billion Slum Dwellers and Counting”, both Davis and Neuwirth didn’t provide solution for improving slum dwellers’ life. I think this is what we, as architects should consider in the city planning, as the importance of these informal economy supporters.

work cited

1.. Planet of Slums, Mike Davis

2.Shadow Cities, Robert Neuwirth

3.A Billion Slum Dwellers and Counting, John Beardsley

 

In their book Empire, Hardt and Negri offer a fresh understanding of the proletariat, “as a broad category that includes all those whose labor is directly or indirectly exploited by and subjected to capitalist norms of production and reproduction,” (Hardt and Negri 52).  This understanding is important to keep in mind when considering the population of over one billion living in informal communities operating in globalized capitalism.  While some suggest that many of the jobs that make up the informal community are entrepreneurial in nature, limited access to resources and capital render these “entrepreneurs” as proletarians involved with the exchange of the scraps of bourgeois productive forces.

Mike Davis correctly notes that the explosion of informal settlemtns is part of a semi-proletarianization process that continues in the tradition of 19^th century Naples (Davis 174).  Instead of reflecting an explosion of micro-capitalism, the trend represents the inadequacy of non-urban economic forms in the rush of 21^st century capitalism.  Informal settlements become hyper-saturated markets for the consumption of developed capitalism’s waste and contrived levels of unemployment.  Just as the unemployed masses of the 19^th century were a byproduct of capitalism itself, informal communities and the informal economies that sustain them are not accidents of postindustrial capitalism.  Rather, they serve to continue the expansion of capital relatively.  The mangnitude of unemployment cheapened the cost of labor because any efforts at collective bargaining could be made null by the rapid replacement of an organized workforce with scores of unemployed masses.

In a similar trick of the market, the electronics market in Lagos (perhaps the most efficient and highprofile example) recycles the detritus and obsolescence of capitalism by exploiting previously-excluded markets (Koolhaas 702).  Antiquated electronics of the late 20^th century become the epitome of 21^st century technology for a market that is constantly expanding in a strikingly dense manner.

Beyond the more “formal,” informal political structures described in the report on Lagos, the development of informal settlements on the scale witnessed thus far suggests that there is the potential for a new political/spatial logic that exists outside of capitalist globalization.  If Haussmanization processess in the 19^th century brought urban space under the control of the bourgeois state, the scope of informal settlements in the 21^st century generate possibilities of extra-state resistance and alternative forms of social organization.  Neuwirth, in contrast to Mike Davis, commented on conditions in informal settlements somewhat positively.  Some residents remarked that the communities within informal settlements often allowed for a sense of freedom and human solidarity that were otherwise unavaiable in the formal city (Neuwirth 5).  Beyond this sense of community, one can speculate the ability to radically critique the global capitalist system.  Without fetishizing underdevelopment or caricaturing “the natives’ creativity,” informal settlements are sites of constant growth, dynamic change and close contact between previously-unrelated masses of people.  The potential for this in shaping consciousness in gigantic; modern processes of urbanization are transforming into processes of hyperurbanization without similar levels of economic advancement.  In this sense, the new expanded proletariat is becoming a global phenomenon far surpassing the industrial proletariat of Marx’s days.

 

Bibliography

Davis, Mike. Planet of Slums. London: Verso, 2006.

Hardt, Michael, and Antonio Negri. Empire. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 2000.

Koolhaas, Rem. Lagos: How It Works. Baden: Lars Müller, 2007.

Neuwirth, Robert. Shadow Cities: A Billion Squatters, a New Urban World. New York: Routledge, 2005.

Definition of slum : a densely populated usually urban area marked by crowding, dirty run-down housing, poverty, and social disorganization.

Slum is also saying that densely populated area of substandard housing, usually in a city, characterized by unsanitary conditions and social disorganization. The Characteristics of slum is very associated with negative images vary place to place, which is usually characterized by high rates of poverty, illiteracy, insanity, urban decay, and unemployment of city. Many cities have these ‘Slum area’ problems.

In the article “Shadow cities”, we need a lot of money to solve the housing problem in Slum area over the world. According to the article, “the world cities should build homes for 670 million people over the coming 15 years. This, the UN estimates, would cost $ 294 billion dollars. A mammoth amount, to be sure. But some simple math brings the number down to earth. We could raise that sum by collecting $3 a year from every person on the planet.” It is almost impossible to solve by only money. The article saying is not only problem of money but also problem of organizational and administrational structure.

Also growing slum-dwellers is important issues for future. In John Beardsley’s article, “A Billion Slum Dwellers and Counting,” “The number of slum-dwellers is expected to double by 2030; slums are now the dominant form of urban land use in much of the developing world.” More and poorer people inflow to slum area these days they don’t have money to live in the expensive area and they have no idea about their living. The government around the world only thinks about solving the problems of slums by clearing away old decrepit housing and replacing it with modern housing with much better sanitation, which is just temporary and short-sight solution for slum area and there is not consideration of people who live there.

 

Works Cited

Shadow Cities, Robert Neuwirth, Page xiii

A Billion Slum Dwellers and Counting, John Beardsley, Page 54

Cities in the world are growing as greater percentages of populations continue the trend of massing in cities. This brings with it the inherent issue of the coexistence of various different types of people. This range of diversity exists through the various spectrum with each urban environment. One level of diversity that creates conflict is the co-existence of the wealthy and poor.This conflict creates physical implications in the form of slums. The urban populace will exist within it self as a spectrum of super rich and super poor. Both require the same necessity to survive: food, water, shelter. The accessibility of these needs is easily obtained by the wealthy with urban infrastructure and consumerist culture. But obtaining these necessities for the poor creates issues.

The search for shelter becomes more complex when the shear number of poor searching for shelter pushes the carrying capacity of an area. This is the birth of slums. A means to provide shelter for the poor of a city on a sale that can accommodate such a large number of poor. An combining factor of so many different slums is the unplanned, unregulated  ad-hoc nature of slums. But somehow slums still manage to have an implicit order. This establishes communities that do not exist within established parameters or constraints still succumb to some degree of order says something about the nature of slums. This establishes that slums may hold within their own ad-hoc, “make it up as you go” attitude an implicit order. This implicit order may maintain with-in it the capacity to establish an means to convert the slums into thriving urban communities.

More than anything the grain embedded in slums holds that unplanned growth and evolution still maintains order and thus could mean that embed within slums is the possibility of initiating a means to pulls slums out of poverty.The same way that slums have been able to create successful market for goods to be bought and sold slums could be able to create better neighborhood to increase the standard of living using the same system of natural order that develops naturally.

Austere conditions with less than the bare necessities to sustain a healthy lifestyle would be considered deplorable to most of Western civilization.  One room surrounded by corrugated metal, no electricity, running water, heating or cooling systems, or even windows is unfathomable to most of the United States.  However these conditions are home to so many across the world who not only live through these conditions, but also raise families and provide for loved ones as well.  Informal cities are frowned upon amongst those who simply don’t understand the current crises facing urban conditions around the world.  With such an increase in population, and no way to regulate a healthy way of life, people begin to take matters into their own hands in order to provide for loved ones.  Is there value is this meager way of life?  Is there an ostensible freedom found in slums and informal cities that most individuals find highly coveted?  Slums always have a negative connotation, however I find a happy contradiction within this lifestyle that emanates through the garbage, and those who dwell within these spaces.  From the readings there seems to be a sense of ownership and pure happiness among those who occupy informal cities.  From a distance, informal cities are ostensibly chaotic, filthy and uninhabitable areas.  Then a closer look may imply organization and a dynamic way of life that supports and maintains this increase in population.  Lagos is a great example of a congested city that contains these chaotic features but simultaneously maintains a sophisticated network of organized systems.  Inherently in Lagos is a dynamic way of living, which comes about through the constant appropriation of spaces by occupants.  Any paved space will be occupied in some way in order to accommodate everyone.  I wonder if there are certain aspects to these informal cities and slums that can b applied to our “perfect cities”, can we learn from Lagos or Mumbai?  Do these areas offer ideas that will inevitably allow the “rethinking” of all cities?  Population growth is an inevitable issue and there doesn’t seem to be a politically correct or humane way of addressing this fact.  The answer may lie within these areas that we look down upon and consider waste lands of poor individuals of which we can never coexist with.  Maybe we can learn from those who have come face to face with a dramatic and life threatening situation that forced them to rethink  their way of life.

 

1. Lagos: Harvard Project on the City, Rem Koolhaas,

2. Lagos: Harvard Project on the City, Rem Koolhaas,

3. Shadow Cities, Robert Neuwirth, Page xiv

Slums, favelas, gecekondu, and pueblos jovenes, all words with different pronunciations from different parts of the world but whose meaning is globalized and tied to the basic human necessity of shelter for the sake of protection. Within these informal settlements, the instinct to survive is materialized through every brick, concrete, and tin wall put up. At the global scale these flights for survival are made up of 70 million individuals leaving their mostly rural homes for reasons of education, war, accessibility, and money and traveling to cities to start a new life. As the book Shadow Cities demonstrates, “that’s around 1.4 million people a week, 200,000 a day, 8,000 an hour, every 130 minutes.” [1] As result, an act of survival that began with the individual has now transformed into one that indirectly affects the survival of the rest the world.

From Lagos to Lima, the opportunities for jobs that cities offer throughout the world are more than likely the biggest attraction for these invaders to migrate. In the case of Lagos, “study revealed that socio-economic factors, such as better employment and educational opportunities, etc., were the main reasons for people to migrate to Lagos.” [3] However, many of these people cannot get a professional job within the confines of the legal city and for this reason are left to maneuver their way into an informal job into the squatter strata of society. As Planet of Slums states, “the informal job sector constitutes about two fifths of the economically active population of the developing world. In Latin America the informal work force makes up 57 percent of the economy and constitutes four out of five new jobs.” [2] The informal working class is then one of the fastest growing economic classes on earth. Informal jobs allow many of these individuals who often have not had much education to sustain themselves within their own community practicing a particular task that most often they have a talent for. This work freedom is highly treasured by the inhabitants of these squatter communities and adding to it the freedom to choose where and how they build their homes gives these individuals a meaning to their materialistic unfortunate conditions.

We in the developed world have moved at least once or twice from a city to another but are restricted to the confines of what is legal. The individuals in these readings go through a same process of movement but do it within the context of the informal because it is the only thing available to them. The rent of an apartment for an individual from rural areas would simply be too great for his/her family to afford. They find pride then in the slow evolution of their housing compound and the help that their neighbors provide to continue their adaptation. The gradual construction allows then for memories to be associated with each aluminum sheet laid upon the roof or the laughter that was had with neighbors while trying to install a door. Construction for them has now gained a more human value or warmth that they begin to appreciate and hold on to strengthen their human instinct of survival.

These constructions at first sight seem to have no since of order but what is important to realize is that their order is one that although unorthodox to outsiders has a unity that is sometimes not seen by a mere observation. Each informal housing compound is adaption to the geography of the site, the shape of the formal city, and the cultural and basic needs of the inhabitants. The stacking space saving cubic homes in Rio would not be able to work in Lagos for the reason that one is in a mountainous coastal context while the other is in flat. Culture of course plays a lot into the construction of these housing units and it is seen in the materials chosen for construction. One would expect individuals coming from the country side in Kenya to utilize the same materials they used in their villages because it is what they have been using for thousands of years prior to their arrival. The materials in Latin America would be of concrete and bricks because of their cheap availability since colonial times.

Whether it is migration patterns, job opportunities, topography, materials, or even the act of building one’s own home every squatter community has something in common. The human need to survive and thrive gives purpose to these individuals while the freedom and human warmth that they find serves as a starting block for the new life they are trying to find.

Sources:

1. Robert Neuwirth, Shadow Cities(London : Routledge, 2004), xiii.
2. Mike Davis, Planet of Slums ( London ; New York : Verso, 2006), 176
3. P. Okuneye, K. Adebayo, B.T Opeolu, F.A Baddru, “ Rural-Urban Migration, Poverty and Sustainable Environment: The Case of Lagos, Nigeria” PRIPODE. http://pripode.cicred.org/spip.php?article79

For Further information take a look at these great articles and videos:
1. Migration Patterns: http://pripode.cicred.org/spip.php?article79
2. BBC Lagos Immigration: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8zdBRFWYizo
3. Life in Makoko district: http://www.economist.com/blogs/baobab/2012/07/nigeria%E2%80%99s-slums
4. Stories from slum residents in Kibera: http://www.economist.com/news/christmas/21568592-day-economic-life-africas-biggest-shanty-town-boomtown-slum

 

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As the worlds population quickly grows past 7 billion people, cities can no longer be bureaucratic on how they develop. In this set of four articles read for class; Planet of Slums, Shadow Cities, A Billion Slum Dwellers and Counting, and Lagos, it can be carefully noted the contrasting viewpoints on how the world sees the rapid growth of third world cities in a more or less positive light.

The Lagos reading quickly situates itself in the positive light as this rapid growth has done wonders for its economic prowess,; making it the most prosperous city in Nigeria.  One of the biggest economic centers, the Alaba International Electronics Market contains over 50,000 merchants which net over 2 Billion dollars annually (1). To top it off, Alaba accounts for 75% of the West African electronics market. Alaba has not only just become a successful marketplace for electronics but has also helped grow a surrounding city and infrastructure with no government money, making it self sufficient. The Alaba foundation built a large car park, donated books and television sets to fill a local market-funded library, built a fire station, an electric substation, and finally telecommunications towers. Again, all built at the market associations expense. (2)

While the informality of Lagos has done wonders for its economy Planet of Slums project informal cities, almost the same urban structure, in a  negative light. Focusing on the competition which drove Lagos to be prosperous can also be the downfall of the informal city. “Increasing competition within the informal sector depletes social capital and dissolves self-help networks and solidarity essential to the survival of the very poor.” (3) In other words too much competition or desperation, has led to insurmountably low prices and becomes too much to handle.

This desperation has changed the culture of society too. Focusing on Haiti: “Now everything is for sale. The woman used to receive you with hospitality, give you coffee, share all that she had in her home…”(4), now all of these things have become for sale, just to get by. I could see this easily causing social and isolation problems. When millions of people are living together in an extremely compact dirty space, where everyone is selling everything, and hospitality is next to none, social bridges and ties crumble. Contrary to this notion, a city of lax and little enforced labor rights, allows for complete freedom and a lot of times creative ways to make money.

Squatters though seemingly temporary and in many ways bad for the economy of a city, could actually turn out to do wonders instead. As many of these squatters have come from all parts of the world in order to have a better life for their families. In addition to bringing their families, many of them bring with them new economic and product ideas. These squatter cities develop with such fervor that one could assume that they grow in the most competent and sensible way. Meaning that while the first world spends large amounts of money on studying and drafting ideas for city planning, squatters let it happen naturally overtime. We probably have something to learn from them. Perhaps we all have something to learn. Squatters will need to learn how to stick up for themselves and begin to pass legislation, take risks, and find their strengths.(5) The squatter communities of today will allow the cities they are in/nearby to develop into the next bustling metropolis such as New York City, keeping in mind the horrible condition of tenement housing of the early 1920’s which through legislation, developed into the relatively clean city we know today.

1. Lagos: Harvard Project on the City, Rem Koolhaas, Page 702

2. Lagos: Harvard Project on the City, Rem Koolhaas, Page 703

3. Planet of Slums, Mike Davis, Page 184

4. Planet of Slums, Mike Davis, Page 184

5. Shadow Cities, Robert Neuwirth, Page xiv.